Buddhism In India || UPSC

Buddha in Meditation.

Buddhism developed in ancient Indian around the teachings of Gautam Buddha. Some of the important pointers about Buddhism are : 

• Buddha was born to Suddhodhana, an elected chief of the Shakya clan and Maya,  Koliyan princess. The clan, with its capital at Kapilvastu, was later annexed by growing Kingdom of Kosala during Buddha's lifetime.  Sariputta, Maudgalyayana, Mahakasyapa, Anand and Aniruddh were his 5 closest disciples. Other important 5 were Upali, Subhoti, Rahula(son), Mahakaccana and Punna. From the Mauryan emperor Ashoka's Rummindei Pillar, it is known that Lumbini is the birth place of Buddha. Subhada was the last person to get enlightenment from Buddha. He delivered his maximum sermons at Shravasti. Devadatta wanted to become leader of the Sangha even during the time of Buddha. He allowed the entry of women in Sangha at Vaishali. Buddha is known as Light of Asia.  The 3 jewels of Buddhism are - Buddha, Dharm and Sangha. 
• Named Buddha : The Buddhavamsa is a text which describes the life of Gautam Buddha and 27 Buddhas who preceded him. The Buddhavamsa is a part of Khuddaka Nikaya, which itself is a part of Sutta Pitaka.  The fourth Buddha, Dipankar, is especially important as he was the Buddha who gave niyatha vivarana( prediction of Future Buddha) to a Brahmin youth who would in distant future become Boddhisattava Gautam Buddha.  Gautam is the curent(28th) Buddha. Many Buddhists also pay homage to future and 29th Buddha, Maitreya. Maitreya will be the successor to Gautam Buddha who will appear on the Earth and teach the pure Dharma.
•  Sariputta and Moggallana/Maudgalyayana were two chief male disciples of Gautam Buddha. Whereas Bhikkuni Khema and Uppalavanna were chief female disciples.
• Avadana is a name given to type of Buddhist Literature correlating past's lives virtuous deeds to subsequent life events. Scholars describe them as stories, usually narrated by Buddha, that illustrate the working of Karma by revealing the deeds of an individual in a previous life and the results of those deeds in present life.
• Therigatha : often translated Verses of the Elder Nuns, is a Buddhist text, a collection of short poems of early women who were elder nuns (having experienced 10 monsoons periods).
• Pavarana :  is a Buddhist holiday celebrated on ashwin full moon of the lunar month. On this day, each monk must come before the community(Sangha) and atone for the offence he may have committed during the Vassa( Varsa-3 month annual retreat observed by Theravada practitioners). 
• Atthamahathanani : refers to 8 great places of pilgrimage in Buddhism. These include 4 places of pilgrimage - Lumbini, Bodhgaya, Sarnath and Kushinagar; and 4 places of Miracles - Sravasti( twin miracle), Sankasia (descent from heaven), Rajgir( taming the drunken elephant Nalagiri) and Vaishali ( renunciation of will to live on). 

Buddhist Pitaka : 

Literal meaning is 3 baskets. Traditional term for Buddhist scriptures revered as exclusive authoritative  in Theravada or Hinayana Buddhism. Mahayana also revers them but unlike Theravadins, it also revers other derivative literature and commentaries that were composed later. These were composed between 500 BCE and 1 century BCE.  These are :

• Vinaya Pitaka : Rules of order for Buddhists, composed by disciple Upali.
• Sutta Pitaka : Buddha's sermons and doctrines, composed by disciple Ananda. It is the largest and most important  of the 3 baskets. It is divided into 5 groups/Nikayas - Digha(Long) Nikaya, Majjhima(Medium) Nikaya, Samyutaa (Connected), Anguttara( Graduated) and Khuddaka(Minor) Nikaya. 
• Abhidhamma Pitaka : Buddhist philosophy, composed by Mahakashyap. 

Sects/ Schools in Buddhism : 

The terminology of divisions of Buddhism is often confusing as it is variously divided by scholars based on geography, history and philosophy. Buddhism is divided into two groups at its foundation- Theravada and Mahayana. But the most common classification is threefold with Mahayana itself split in traditional Mahayana and Vajrayana. The original Sangha split into the first early schools- Sthavira Nikaya(wanted to tighten monastic discipline by adding new vinayas rules) and Mahasamghika- several years after the passing away of Gautam Buddha. Later these first schools split into further division, ending up in 18-20 schools.

• Theravada (School of Elders):  One of the most ancient branch of Buddhism and one that preserved their version of the teachings of Buddha in Pali Canon. The Pali Canon is the only complete Buddhist Canon which exists in Indian classical language, Pali. It developed in Sri Lanka  and later spread to South East Asia. It is dominant in Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar and Thailand. The name Theravada comes from ancient Sthaviriya, from which the Theravidins claim descent. They held that an awakened arhat has an incorruptible nature, unlike the other early Buddhist schools,who believed that arhat could regress. Theravadin tradition holds that dhamma exits only in the present moment, against the eternalist view of Sarvastivadin that dhamma exits in all three times - past,present and future. Nirvana is the ultimate aim of the Theravadins. It is state where fire of passion has been blown out, and the person is liberated from the repeated cycle of birth, illness, ageing and death.  The four stages of Enlightenment in Theravada and early Buddhism are 4 progressive stages culminating in full enlightenment as an arhat. These are - Sotapanna(stream-entrant), Sakadagami( once-returner), Anagami( non returning) and arhat.
• Mahayana : Mahayana also refers to the path of Boddhisattavas seeking complete enlightenment for the benefit of all beings. Mahayana has 53% of practitioners as compared to 36% of Theravada and 6% for Vajrayana in 2010. Mahayana generally hold that only personal release from suffering i.e. nirvana is a narrow or inferior aspiration because it lacks the resolve to liberate other beings from suffering. The bodhhisattava path is seen as superior to those who seek  arhat or solitary buddhahood for their own sake. Kanishka was great patron of Mahayana Buddhism.
• Vajrayana : Usually translated to Thunderbolt or Diamond Vehicle, referring to the Vajra. It subscribes to literature known as Buddhist Tantras. It is traced to a group of wandering yogis Mahasiddhas. 

Boddhisattva

In Buddhism is any person who is on path towards Buddhahood but has not yet achieved it. In early Buddhism, the term is used to refer to Gautam Buddha in his previous lives and as a young man in his present life in the period during which he was working towards his own liberation. In early Buddhist texts, as well as modern Theravada Buddhism, a boddhisattava refers to anyone who has made a resolution to become Budhha and has also received a confirmation from a living Buddha that this will be so. Some of the primary Boddhisattavas are : 

• Akasagarbha : Associated with great element of space(akash).
• Avalokitesvara/Padmapani : Boddhisattava of compassion. Most universally acknowledged boddhisattava in Mahayana Buddhism and appears unofficially in Theravada Buddhism in Cambodia. 
• Ksitigarbha : Vow of taking responsibility of all living beings between the death of Buddha and rise of Maitreya. Regarded as boddhisattava of hell being guardian of children and patron deity of deceased children in Japanese culture.
• Mahasthamaprapta : Representing power of wisdom, often depicting a trinity with Amitabh and Avalokitesvara. Literal meaning of the name is Arrival of great Strength. 
• Maitreya : Also referred as Ajita in some Buddhist texts. Regarded as future Buddha.
• Manjusri : associated with prajna(transcendent wisdom).
• Samantabhadra : associated with practice and meditation. Together with Buddha and Manjusri, form the Shakyamuni Trinity in Buddhism. 
• Vajrapani : Protector and guide of Gautam Buddha and rose to symbolise Buddha's power. Represented as one of the 3 protective deities surrounding Buddha in Buddhist iconography. Each of them symbolise Buddha's virtues - Manjusri manifests Buddha's wisdom, Avalokitesvara manifests Buddha's compassion and Vajrapani manifests Buddha's power.

The first seven, along with Sarvanivarana Vishhkambhin, form the 8 Great Boddhisatavas of Mahayana Buddhism.  Tara, appears as a female boddisattava in Mahayana Buddhism, and as a female Buddha in Vajrayan Buddhism.  She is known as the Mother of Liberation, and represents the virtues of success in work and achievements. 

Symbols of Buddhism : 

Lotus	Birth and Bull
Dharm Chakra(Wheel)	First Sermon
Bodhi Tree	Enlightenment.
Horse	Great Departure.
Stupa	Mahaparinirvana.

Buddhist Councils: 

• First Buddhist Council : Held at Sattapani Caves, Rajgir around 400 BCE. It was presided by monk Mahakasyap under the patronage of King Ajatshatru. The objective was to  preserve Buddha's sayings(suttas) and the monastic discipline or order(Vinaya). Suttas were recited by Ananda and Vinaya were recited by Upali.
• Second Buddhist Council : Held at Vaishali under the presidency of Monk Sabakami with the support of King Kalasoka. There is dispute over the actual date. Root issue was the points of Vinaya or monastic discipline which resulted in the first division of the Sangha -  Sthaviravadins and Mahasanghika.
• Third Buddhist Council : Held at Pataliputra under the presidency of Monk Mogalliputta Tissa under the patronage of King Asoka. Objective was to purify the Buddhist movement, particularly from opportunistic factions which had been attracted due to royal patronage.Split between Sarvastivada and Vibhajjavada schools. Different schools of Buddhism provide different accounts of the Third Buddhist Council.
• Fourth Buddhist Council : Held in Kashmir in 78 AD under the patronage of Kanishka and was presided by Monk Vasumitra. The objective was to systematise the Sarvastivadin Abhidharma texts. 

Buddhist Mudras : 

• Abhay Mudra : Gesture of fearlessness or blessing that represents protection, peace , benevolence and dispelling of fear. 
• Bhumisparsa Mudra : Represents the moment of the Buddha's awakening as he claims the Earth as witness to his enlightenment when he was threatened by demon king Mara.
• Dharamchakra Mudra : Describes one of the most important moments of Buddha's life as he performed the mudra in his first sermon in Sarnath after he attained enlightenment. 
• Varada  Mudra : Represents the offering, welcome, charity, giving, compassion and sincerity. 
• Karana Mudra : Signifies warding off of evils. It helps in reducing sickness or negative thoughts.
• Vajra Mudra : Denotes the fiery thunderbolt that symbolises the 5 elements i.e. fire, water, air, earth and metal.
• Vitarka Mudra : Signifies the discussion and transmission of the teachings of Buddha. 
• Uttarbodhi Mudra : Denotes supreme enlightenment through connecting oneself with divine universal energy. 
• Anjali Mudra : Represents the gesture of greeting, prayer and adoration.