Indian Philosophies || UPSC

Moksha |  Image by Okan Caliskan from Pixabay 

Indian philosophy in divided into orthodox( astika- 6 schools) and heterodox (nastik - 5 major schools) based on following 3 alternate criteria :

1. Whether it believes Vedas are valid source of knowledge.
2. Whether it believes in premise of brahman and atman.
3.  Whether it believes in afterlife and devas(deities).

Orthodox School of Philosophies : 

These 6 schools are often coupled for both historical and conceptual reasons- Nyaya-Vaisheshika, Samkhya-Yoga and Mimansa-Vedanta. 

Nyaya :

• Its' epistemology accepts 4 out of the 6 pramanas as reliable source of knowledge.- pratyaksha(perception), anumana(inference),upamana( comparison and analogy) and sabda(word, testimony of past and present reliable experts). Hinduism identifies 6 Pramanas as epistemically reliable means to accurate knowledge and truth. The other 2 pramanas are - postulation, derivation from circumstances(arthapatti) and negative proof(anupalabdhi).
• It holds that human sufferings results from mistakes produced by activity under wrong knowledge. Moksha can be gained through right knowledge. 
• The most important contribution to Indian Philosophy was development of theory of logic, methodology and its treatises on epistemology. 
• Supposed to be founded by Gautama who wrote Nyaya Sutra.

Vaisheshika : 

• The epistemology of this school accepts only two reliable means to knowledge- perception and inference.
• Known for its insights in naturalism. It is a form of atomism in natural philosophy. It postulated that all objects in the physical universe are reducible to parmanu(atoms) and one's experiences are derived from the interplay of the substance, quality, activity, commonness, particularity and inherence. According to this school, knowledge and liberation were achievable by a complete understanding of the world of experience.
• Salvation by the wishes of God. 
• Kanada is considered as the founder of the philosophy.

Samkhya : 

• Oldest school of philosophy founded by Kapil Muni who wrote Samkhya Sutra.
• Accepts 3 of the 6 pramanas - pratyaksa, anumana and shabd. 
• The school is strongly dualist. It regards universe consisting of two realities- purush ( consciousness) and prakriti(matter). Jiva(living being) is a state in which purush is bonded to prakriti in some form. 
• Salvation through acquisition of knowledge.

Yoga : 

• The epistemology, similar to Samkhya, relies on 3 of the pramanas - pratyaksa, anumana and shabd.
• The metaphysics, too, is same to Samkhya i.e. dualist. 
• But the difference with Samkhya school is while Samkhya school considers knowledge as sufficient means to salvation, Yoga school suggest systematic techniques, or personal experimentation, combined with Samkhya approach to knowledge, is the path to Mokhsha. 
• The origin of Yoga and school have been expounded in the Yogsutra written by Patanjali.

Mimansa : 

• The literal meaning is reflection or critical investigation, and thus refers to a tradition of Brahmanic thought which reflected on the meanings of certain Vedic texts. This tradition is also known as Purva Mimansa /Karma Mimansa because of its focus on earlier Vedic texts dealing with ritual actions. The school is known for its philosophical theories on the nature of the Dharma, based on the hermeneutics of Vedas, especially the Brahmanas and Samhitas.
• The school was foundational and influential for the Vedantic schools , which were also known as Uttar-Mimansa /Jnana Mimansa for their focus on the later portions of the Vedas, the Upanishads. 
• The Prabhakara sub school of Mimansa recognizes five means of valid knowledge whereas Bhatta sub school recognizes 6 including anupalabhdi. 
• Salvation through performance of rituals but also necessary to understand the justification and reasoning behind the Vedic rituals. Sutras of Jaimini describe the philosophy in detail.

Vedanta : 

• It is an umbrella term for many sub traditions, ranging from dualism to non dualism, all of which developed on the basis of a common textual connection called Prasthanatrayi(3 sources) - Principal Upanishads, the Brahma sutras and Bhagwat Gita.
• All the Vedanta schools, concern themselves with the following 3 categories but differ on their views regarding the concept and relations between them- Brahman(ultimate physical reality), Atman( individual soul or self) and Prakriti( the empirical world). 
• Vedanta Schools propounding non dualism are advaita, Vishistadvaita and Shuddhadvaita whereas Dvaita propunds Dualism. 
• Salvation through knowledge of self.

Heterodox School of Philosophy :

Ajivika Philosophy :

• The term literally means those following special rules with regard to livelihood.
• Supposedly founded in 5th century BC by Makkhali Gosala.
• Known for Niyati(fate) doctrine of absolute determinism - premise that there is no free will; considered karma doctrine as a fallacy; were atheist and rejected authority of Vedas but believed in everything living being is an atman.
• It was a Shramana movement (seeker,one who performs acts of austerity,ascetic) and was major rival of Buddhism and Jainism. 
• Founded in UP, reached height of its popularity during rule of Mauryan king Bindusara.

Ajnana(Agyan) :

• Ancient school of radical Indian Skepticism.
• Held that it was impossible to obtain knowledge of metaphysical nature or to ascertain the truth value of philosophical propositions, and even if knowledge was obtained, it was useless for final salvation. They were specialised in refutation without propagating any positive doctrine of their own. 
• All of our knowledge of this school comes from Buddhist and Jain sources.

Charvaka/Lokayata :

• Ancient school of Indian Materialism and propounder of the materialistic view to achieve salvation. They argued against the need to achieve salvation and also denied the existence of brahman and God.
• Holds direct perception, empiricism and conditional inference as proper sources of knowledge and rejects Vedas, Vedic ritualism and supernaturalism. 
• Ajita Kesakambali is credited as the forerunner of the philosophy and Brihaspati is usually regarded as the founder of the Charvaka philosophy.

The two other Heterodox School of Indian Philosophy are Buddhism and Jainism.